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THE PSYCHOLOGY OF CHILDHOOD 
AND YOUTH 



BOOKS BY EARL BARNES 



WOMAN IN MODERN SOCIETY. 

A volume which deals with the biological and historical 
conditions through which women have passed, and seeks to 
outline the problems which at present confront her in in- 
dustry, education, social and political life, and the home. 
Published by B. W. Huebsch, 225 Fifth Avenue, New York. 
Price, $1.25, net. 

WHERE KNOWLEDGE FAILS. 

The second volume in the Art of Life Series, edited by 
Edward Howard Griggs. It presents the religious belief of 
a practical man of affairs, and seeks to show the necessity 
and the justification for faith. Published by B. W. Huebsch, 
225 Fifth Avenue, New York. Price, 50 cents, net. 

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF CHILDHOOD AND YOUTH. 

Outlines of Thirty Lectures. 

Each outline, or abstract, gives the substance of a lecture, 
and is followed by a bibliography. The book is interleaved 
so as to make it a handy desk manual for students and 
teachers of the subject. B. W. Huebsch, 225 Fifth Avenue, 
New York. Price, 50 cents, net. 



STUDIES IN EDUCATION. 

A collection of quantitative studies, based on an examina- 
tion of thousands of children and dealing with their mental, 
moral, religious, artistic and industrial ideas and ideals. It 
is published in two independent volumes, each illustrated 
with many charts and drawings. The second volume is 
mainly based on the study of children in England. These 
volumes have been more widely used by parents and teachers 
in America and Europe than any other similar work. 
Privately printed, and for sale at two dollars a volume, 
postage paid, by 

EARL BARNES, 

3640 Chestnut street, 

Philadelphia, Pa. 



THE PSYCHOLOGY OF 
CHILDHOOD AND YOUTH 

Outlines of Thirty Lectures 



BY 

EARL BARNES 




NEW YORK 

B. W. HUEBSCH 

1914 



V 



*** 



<&" 



Copyright, 1914, 
Bt B. W. HUEBSCH 



FEB 16 1915 



, CIA."J«3641 
^0 i 



OBJECT OF THIS COURSE OF LECTURES 

The basal subject of study for teachers must always 
be children. They are to pedagogy what anatomy and 
physiology are to medicine, or what soils, plants, and ani- 
mals are to agriculture. But the genesis of children's 
minds must also interest parents and all those who care 
for the development of human nature. The object of this 
course of lectures is to outline the results of the more re- 
cent individual and group studies on the physical, mental, 
moral, social, aesthetic, and religious life of childhood and 
youth. The lectures will also seek to make educational 
applications of the generalizations reached, to the home, 
the school, and to society at large. 



BOOKS DESIRABLE FOR THIS COURSE 

The Mental and Physical Life of School Children, by Peter 
Sandiford, Longmans, Green, & Co., New York, 1913. 

Experimental Pedagogy and The Psychology of the Child, by 
Ed. Claparede, trans, by Mary Louch and Henry Holman, 
Longmans, Green, & Co., New York, 1912. 

Fundamentals of Child Study, by Edwin A. Kirkpatrick, The 
Macmillan Co., New York, 1904. 

Studies in Education, by Earl- Barnes, 2 vols., privately printed 
by Earl Barnes, Philadelphia. 

The Mental Health of the School Child, by J. E. Wallace Wallin, 
Yale University Press, New Haven, 1914. 



WHAT A CHILD MAY INHERIT 

Need for a study of eugenics : ' ' Eugenics is the science that 
deals with all the influences that improve the inborn quali- 
ties of the race." — Galton. The family, the school, and 
society at large are alike interested in starting with well- 
born children, in order to reach the best results for the 
future, and to avoid the burden of caring for the unfit. 
Francis Galton gave us the word "eugenics," in 1904; 
and endowed a Professorship of Eugenics in London Uni- 
versity which is now filled by Prof. Karl Pearson. 
Theories of inheritance : Darwin, each new experience modi- 
fies the organism and then the organism tends to repro- 
duce itself; acquired characteristics are thus inheritable. 
Weismann, the germ plasm is passed on from generation 
to generation; only changes that affect the germ plasm 
are inheritable. Mendel, in crossing breeds, the dominant 
qualities persist in one-third of the descendants ; what are 
the dominant qualities in man? 

Conditions which we know are inherited: Imbecility, in- 
sanity, and epilepsy are inherited ; blindness and deafness 
sometimes continue in families. Syphilis is passed on to 
descendants; gonorrhoea is not inherited, but its effects 
may carry over to the child. Alcoholism is uncertain; 
Prof. Karl Pearson vs. Sir Victor Horsley. Tuberculosis 
is not inherited ; though favorable conditions for its devel- 
opment may be. 

The world's birth-rate: To perpetuate a group there must 
be an average of four births in each family. American 
vital statistics are unreliable, but the American-born pa- 
rents are not reproducing themselves. In England, the 
birth-rate, in 1876, was 36.3 per 1000 inhabitants ; in 1905, 
27.2; in 1906, 27.1; in 1907, 26.3; in 1908, 26.5; in 1909, 
25.6 ; in 1910, 28.8 ; in thirty years the birth-rate has fallen 
one-third. This decrease is most rapid in the families of 
the more wealthy and intelligent classes. In France, the 
birth-rate is virtually stationary. In Germany, the drop 

9 



began twenty years later than in England, but is now go- 
ing steadily on. In ten years, it lias fallen from 31.5 per 
1000 births, to 21.9 in Munich ; from 31.5 to 20.2 in Dres- 
den ; in two large districts of Berlin it has fallen to 13.8, 
less than the death-rate. The birth-rate is best maintained 
among Catholics, Jews, members of the Episcopalian 
Church, and the lowest laboring classes. 
Legislation, accomplished or impending: Laws requiring 
medical examination before marriage, such as those of 
Indiana and Wisconsin; sterilization of sexual degen- 
erates, as in Indiana; segregation of imbeciles and 
idiots; registration of syphilitics and consumptives. En- 
couragement of large families by granting exemption 
from medical service to fathers; mothers' and widows' 
pensions. Control of alcohol and narcotics. 
Difficult problems: Does the present protection of the unfit, 
through humane laws, produce more unfit children? Do 
child labor laws discourage large families ? Are large fam- 
ilies desirable? Is it better to have a few children well 
cared for than many children less well nourished and edu- 
cated? Does the single child in the family suffer a han- 
dicap? Is it unfortunate to have the new generation 
largely recruited from the lower social classes? 

BEADING 

The Writings of Darwin, Weismann, and Mendel. 

Heredity, by Jonathan Thompson, G. P. Putnam's Sons, New 

York. 
Heredity, by J. A. S. Watson, Dodge Publishing Co., New York. 
Parenthood and Race Culture, by C. W. Saleeby, Moffat, Yard 

& Co., New York, 1911. 
The Problem of Race Regeneration, by Havelock Ellis, Moffat, 

Yard & Co., New York, 1911. 
The Mental and Physical Life of School Children, by Peter 

Sandiford, Longmans, Green, & Co., New York, 1913. See 

Chap. I, on Heredity and Environment. 
The Mental Health of the School Child, by J. E. Wallace Wallin, 

Yale University Press, New Haven, 1914. See Chap. XII. 



10 



II 

THE LIFE OF EARLY INFANCY 

Effects of conditions surrounding conception and pregnancy: 

The infant's qualities are probably determined by the na- 
ture of the germ plasm. This is formed in a period pre- 
ceding conception. The time of courtship thus becomes 
very important, and nature emphasizes this fact in many 
ways. The mother's good health during pregnancy 
makes her a good base of nourishment; but in case of 
weakness the baby takes its own to the destruction of the 
mother. The mother's thought and feelings during preg- 
nancy are probably valuable only as affecting her health. 
Prenatal care is, however, very important. In the regis- 
tration area of the United States, in 1911, 42 per cent, of 
infants dying under one year of age did not complete the 
first year of life ; and of these, seven-tenths died as a result 
of prenatal conditions. 

Subjective life of infancy: It is mainly vegetative. There 
are sporadic beginnings of intellectual, social, artistic, and 
other interests, but they are not very important in the 
first year of life. Attempts to study the inner life of 
infants; seldom by mothers; reasons for this. Preyer, 
Perez, Miss Shinn ; difficulty in interpreting what we see. 
Care of infancy: It should be regular and very simple. Un- 
broken sleep, regular feeding, by the mother if possible. 
The wet nurse, cow's milk, artificial food. In New York, 
in August, 1909, 67.6 per cent, of the deaths of children 
under one year old were due to intestinal disturbances. 
In the city of Berlin, in July, 1909, there were 913 deaths 
of children fed on cow's milk and only 86 deaths of chil- 
dren breast-fed. Good air, regular nursing by the mother, 
and quiet are the conditions most desirable. Mother's 
love, when intelligent, is extremely important. 
Infant mortality : Due to bad heritage ; bad living condi- 
tions, greatest in city slums; to ignorance, far greater 
among negroes than whites. Efforts to reduce such mor- 
tality; pasteurized milk, clean tenements, district nurses, 

11 - 



nursing by the mother, slight use of medicines, education 
of parents. 

The decreasing- death-rate in infancy: In the cities of the 
United States, in 1900, the death of children in the first 
year of life, ran from 134 per 1000 births, in Chicago, to 
260 per 1000 births, in Fall River. In New York City, the 
general death-rate, in the decade 1896-1905, decreased 26 
per cent., while the deaths under one year of age decreased 
43 per cent. In England and Wales, the deaths under one 
year per 1000 births has decreased from 156, in 1831, to 
146, in 1904. In France, it dropped from 167 per 1000 
births, in the period 1874-1893, to 137, in 1903. 
The education of infancy: The establishment of the reflexes 
that regulate eating, digestion, and excretion is very im- 
portant. The baby should also learn to respect the social 
conventions that are based on realities. When fed, warm, 
and clean, it should lie quietly in its crib. The training 
of these habits is of great value in after life. 

READING 

The Meaning of Infancy, by John Fiske, Houghton Mifflin Co., 

Boston. 
The Care of the Baby, by J. P. Crozier Griffith, W. B. Saunders 

Co., Philadelphia, 1907. 
The Mind of the Child and Mental Development in the Child,' 

by Wilhelm Preyer, in International Education Series, D. 

Appleton & Co., New York, 1888-1893. 
Biography of a Baby, by Milicent W. Shinn, Houghton Mifflin 

Co., Boston, 1900. 
The Mental Development of a Child, by Kathleen Carter Moore, 

Monograph Supplement, No. 3, Oct., 1896, Psychological 

Review, Princeton, New Jersey. 



12 



Ill 

LAWS OF PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT 

Biological considerations: Prenatal recapitulation of ani- 
mal progress. Proportions of the body at birth ; excessive 
development of head and trunk; fitted for functions of a 
feeding animal; exercise confined to big muscle masses; 
unequal development of parts; greatest growth in first 
four months ; rapid growth of cranial capacity. 
Anthropometry: What Galton hoped from measuring peo- 
ple. Over-estimation of the value of size ; vast amount of 
work done; comparatively slight results. The curves of 
height and weight; periods of rapid and slow growth. 
When education should be pushed. Boys physically su- 
perior to girls, except between ages of eleven or twelve 
and fifteen or sixteen. Meaning of this period; its treat- 
ment and education. Eacial differences in growth; need 
for functional tests. 

Conditions favoring good health: Good ancestry; good so- 
cial conditions, height and weight of children in the classes 
who have good incomes. Effects of good food, clothing, 
shelter, freedom from excessive labor, and medical at- 
tendance on growth. Exercise, sports, and athletics for 
boys, for girls. 

Relation of physical conditions and intellectual ability: 
Physical development of imbeciles, irregular, completed at 
an early age. Results of tests on the relation of size to 
school efficiency, Porter, Boas, Smedley. Fatigue, its 
physiological effects; permanent effects of excessive 
physical fatigue, Marathon races. Intellectual work and 
fatigue ; signs of nervous overstrain. 

Relation of the school to health: Underfeeding and bad 
clothing; problem of feeding children in school; experi- 
ence of Paris, Berlin, and London. Effect of bad shoes in 
London. How far should the state correct these evils! 
Need for medical inspection; its value in stopping con- 
tagion, in detecting chronic cases ; school nurses ; exami- 
nation of eyes ; inspection of teeth, the school dental clinic. 

13 



Out-of-door schools ; tuberculous children ; crippled chil- 
dren. 

Playgrounds: Play indispensable to health; limited play 
facilities in cities, city playgrounds; Chicago recreation 
centers. The Gary experiment; the Wisconsin attempt to 
establish rural playgrounds. Boy Scouts, Camp Fire 
Girls, Girl Pioneers. 

Teaching hygiene: Compulsory instruction in physiology; 
treatment of narcotics and alcohol ; unsatisfactory results 
of the effort. Value of forming right physical habits ; 
weakness of day schools in regulating meals, sleep, clean- 
liness, and exercise. School baths. 

Bad American habits: Excess in American life; late hours 
for children; problems of sleep. Children's parties, bad 
food, excitement; accomplishments, their cost. Precocity, 
the Sidis boy; how far children should be pushed. Need 
for a simple environment in childhood. 
Conditions needed to secure healthy children : A new biolog- 
ical or eugenic conscience exalting health. A better dis- 
tribution of wealth and its opportunities. A reorganiza- 
tion of social life, making each responsible for all. Sound 
sex instruction. 

READING 

Pedagogical Anthropology, by Maria Montessori, Frederick A. 

Stokes Co., New York, 1913. See Chap. I, on Certain Prin- 
ciples of General Biology. 
Adolescence: Its Psychology, by G. Stanley Hall, D. Appleton 

& Co., New York, 1904. See first three chapters. 
Physical Growth and School Progress, by Bird Thomas Baldwin, 

United States Bureau of Education, Bulletin No. 10, 1914. 

See also Bulletins 16, 18, 44, 48, and 52, for 1914. 
Medical Inspection of Schools, by Luther H. Gulick and Leonard 

P. Ayres, Charities Publication Committee, New York, 1913. 
Experimental Pedagogy and The Psychology of the Child, by 

Ed. Claparede, Longmans, Green, & Co., 1912. 



14 



IV 
FEELINGS AND EMOTIONS IN CHILDHOOD 

Difficulty in studying emotions : They cannot be repeated, as 
sensations can ; they tend to vanish when one thinks about 
them ; one cannot remember them, as he can sensations. 
Besides this, one cannot measure them; it is impossible 
even to say : I am twice as angry as I was before. Theo- 
ries of emotions are unsettled. One school holds that they 
are the sum of physical sensibility caused by an experi- 
ence, or an idea. Another school holds that they accom- 
pany, or follow, ideas and produce the physical changes. 
Stages in the development of emotions : In infancy, emotions 
are related mainly to objective conditions ; and, owing to 
the fragmentariness of the subjective life in infancy, they 
are narrowly egoistic, and very intense, but of short dura- 
tion. After the age of twelve, the inner life being more 
organized, the emotions become more subjective, and in 
place of sudden fears and joys, we have brooding dreads 
and larger happiness. There is a tendency, too, to altru- 
ism. In adult years, the mind being organized, most of 
our emotions are inhibited by experience. If conditions 
are right, the greatest emotions of life may come in ma- 
turity. 

Influences modifying emotions: Nervous conditions have 
much to do with emotional states. A disorganized nervous 
system is the prey of fear, anger, and the like. Ignorance 
leaves one subject to his emotions. Contagion plays a 
large part ; when nearly all the people are afraid it is diffi- 
cult for the individual to escape fear. 
Effects of emotions: Happy emotions invigorate the phys- 
ical life and quicken the intelligence. Depressing emotions 
are bad for both health and thinking. 

Fear: Extended studies made on fear by Hall and Mosso. 
Fear is the natural guard and corrective for curiosity; 
objects which excite this emotion ; abnormal developments 
in childhood, fear of the dark, of animals, of peculiar peo- 
ple, of imagined monsters. Values and dangers of fear 

15 



i 



in childhood. Correctives for excessive fear, frank facing 
of the danger, training of the will, general intelligence. 
The pleasures of fear; they vanish when fear passes the 
threshold of pain ; their value in children's play; the tragic 
drama; the grotesque in art. 

Educational use of emotions: They have been much 
neglected, but need to be cultivated, mainly by indirection. 
The humanities are rich in emotional appeal, literature, 
and biography; the sciences are weak. For young chil- 
dren we need small, changing emotions ; for youth, large, 
out-going, brooding emotions are possible. 

READING 

Principles of Psychology, by "William James, Henry Holt & Co., 
New York, 1890, Vol. II., p. 415. 

Expression of the Emotions in Men and Animals, by Charles 
Darwin, D. Appleton & Co., New York, 1896. 

Fear, by Angelo Mosso, Longmans, Green, & Co., New York, 
1896. 

Fear in Childhood, by Agnes Holbrook; and Children and 
Ghosts, by Louise Maitland, in Barnes's Studies in Educa- 
tion, Vol. II, pp. 18, 53, and 175. 



16 



SENSE DEVELOPMENT IN CHILDREN 

Gradual development of sense organs: In low forms of ani- 
mal life sensibility is distributed over the whole body, 
micro-organisms. Slow development of sound spots, 
sight spots, touch centers, etc. Peculiar developments in 
the animal world, multiplied eyes, antennae, development 
of scent in moths, in dogs, "direction sense" in pigeons. 
Our present senses, touch, sight, sound, taste, and smell, 
temperature sense, and weight sense. The remaining un- 
differentiated sensibility; possibility of further sense de- 
velopment; of occult senses. 

The mechanism of sense: End organs, afferent nerves, cen- 
tral ganglia, localization of sense centers, efferent nerves. 
The registration of sense impressions; their varying 
power in memory. How far sensations give us knowledge ; 
their differing values. Curious case of Helen Keller. 
Development of the senses in children: Sensibility in pre- 
natal period ; at least sensitive to cold. The rush of sen- 
sations at birth. Taste best developed of an infant's 
senses. Sight; lower animals born blind; children but 
slowly master the mechanism of the eye so that they can 
really see ; early attraction to bright and glittering things. 
Hearing, very dull at birth. Smell, one of the least val- 
uable senses for purposes of thought, seems to be disap- 
pearing in man. Touch and muscular sense ; great value 
of the latter for knowledge. Extreme sense activity of 
children. 

Form, color, and music : Great value of these for education. 
Form sense measures the balance of control in the indi- 
vidual. Steps in the development of color interest; color 
combinations; color blindness. Music, its relation to 
physical movement, physical rhythm, dancing ; reaction of 
music on the character. Plato's theory of musical edu- 
cation. 

Defective senses: Imperfect vision, its bearing on health 
and learning; need of testing all children; should glasses 

17 



be furnished by the state? The blind; how far the power 
of their other senses is increased; methods of training. 
The deaf; how far they can interpret vibration through 
tactual sense; must be taught to read the lips; the day 
school versus the asylum. 

Educational value of sense training : Probably over-esti- 
mated. Possibility of increasing the power of any sense, 
probably limited to first three years of life. Possibility 
of transferring sense skill reached in one field to another 
field is slight. The value of all-around sense training for 
knowledge is uncertain ; probably of little value for mathe- 
matics, logic, and other formal studies depending on men- 
tal concepts. Work of Pestalozzi, Seguin and Montessori. 
Large composite states of sensibility furnish us most of 
our knowledge and happiness. What the training of the 
eye really means. 

READING 

The Psychic Life of Micro-Organisms, by Alfred Binet, The 

Open Court Publishing Co., Chicago, 1903. 
Social Life in the Insect World, by J. H. Fabre, Century Co., 

New York, 1912. 
The Montessori Method, by Maria Montessori, Frederick A. 

Stokes Co., New York, 1912. See Chapters XIII and XIV, 

on education of the senses, also Pedagogical Anthropology, 

by the same author and publisher. 
The Mental and Physical Life of School Children, by Peter San- 

diford, Longmans, Green, & Co., New York, 1913. See 

Chap. VII, on The End Organs and Sensation. 



18 



VI 

HOW CHILDREN THINK 

Stages in thinking: When a sensation is received into the 
mind of a child it does not necessarily mean that he will 
think about it. If he does, the sensation is first registered 
in its proper place in the nervous system; it is then con- 
nected with something in the external world, through per- 
ception, which is supposed to cause it ; it is compared with 
ideas already registered, or with other new sensations ; it 
is then established in a group of memory images through 
generalization, and this new concept may then be worked 
up in a larger generalization or used for identifying and 
interpreting other sensations. This process is never really 
completed until the new idea has been expressed in some 
way. The impulse that came in as sensation must travel 
out as expression to complete the arc. Trained minds se- 
lect and work up significant sensations, and discard the 
non-essential; weak minds get lost in the midst of their 
unclassified possessions. 

Development of children's observation: A young child's in- 
terest flits from object to object and so he does not see 
large wholes. Perez's study on a child in a cathedral; 
Young's study of children's journeys, children who have 
been to Switzerland seldom mention the mountains, and 
those who have been to the seashore do not mention the 
sea. Small children are attracted by glitter and motion. 
Careful observation requires expression; "A pencil is the 
best microscope." Agassiz. Ease with which a child's 
observation may be misled through suggestion. 
Qualities that interest children: Studies by Binet, Barnes, 
and Shaw; children were asked what they meant by sim- 
ple words, such as knife, bread, and dog. They seldom 
gave qualities of form, color, structure, or substance. They 
almost always gave the use of the object; and in the sec- 
ond place, they gathered it under a larger term: "Bread 
is food. ' ' A considerable number also gave its character- 
istic action, which is allied to use. 

19 



Generalization: Children have very slight power of gen- 
eralization. They remark on differences, and especially 
on peculiar cases, long before they notice the general law. 
An ignorant traveler sees oddly dressed people and re- 
marks on strange things to eat ; the trained mind sees gen- 
eral tendencies in industry, or in social observances. Of 
course, the general fact is unconsciously observed first, or 
the variant could not be recognized as peculiar. 
Value of thinking: It enables us to profit by the experience 
of the past; and it leads us to new knowledge, thereby 
broadening our world. But, in actual conduct, most of our 
actions are habitual and unconscious. The feelings are 
the aristocrats of the subjective world; and even highly 
trained people may think one thing and do another, be- 
cause they feel like it. 

Educational applications: Objects to be studied should be 
common to the child's life. Living things are better than 
dead ones. Subjects should be varied, especially with 
young children. Expression should always follow obser- 
vation through gesture, drawing, manual work, or oral 
and written language. 

READING 

A Study of Children's Interests, by Earl Barnes, in Barnes's 
Studies in Education, Vol. I, p. 203. See also Children's 
Travel Interests, by Sarah Young, in the same volume, p. 
338. 

The Mental and Physical Life of School Children, by Peter San- 
diford, Longmans, Green, & Co., New York, 1913. See 
Chap. X, on Association. 

Fundamentals of Child Study, by Edwin A. Kirkpatrick, The 
Macmillan Co., New York, 1904. See Chap. XIV, on De- 
velopment of Intellect. 

Experimental Pedagogy and The Psychology of the Child, by 
Ed. Claparede, Longmans, Green, & Co., 1912. 



20 



VII 

PHYSICALLY AND MENTALLY DEFECTIVE 
CHILDREN 

Classes to be considered: Overworked children; neglected 
children, underfed, badly clothed, dirty, sick, misused; 
deformed children, cripples, humpback, clubfoot, infan- 
tile paralysis; chronic invalids, adenoids, tuberculosis, 
weak heart, Bright 's disease; temporary diseases, colds, 
measles, diphtheria, etc.; defects of special senses, deaf 
and blind ; nervous wreckage, epileptics, chorea, neurotics ; 
the morally weak, incorrigibles, sex perverts; mental in- 
capacity, the dull, morose, imbeciles, idiots. 
Proper attitude of the state to these cases: It should not 
seek to play the philanthropist; it should protect itself 
against ignorance, disease, and bad citizens for the future. 
It should seek to make every one self-supporting, so far 
as possible. It should secure justice to all. 
Function of the school: The common school should be a 
clearing house for all the children of the state. Aided 
by medical experts, it should select the unfit and try them 
out, where necessary, in special classes. Those requiring 
individual treatment should be gathered in special schools, 
or, if hopeless, segregated in colonies. The school should 
not be required to permanently supervise and care for 
these classes; custodial colonies should be established. 
Final treatment of these classes: Overworked children 
should be protected by legislation, and inspection, backed 
by public opinion; there is danger of excessive interfer- 
ence in this direction. Neglected children should be pro- 
tected from abuse, and fed, and clothed when necessary; 
but, when possible, the home should be strengthened, 
rather than broken up ; widows ' pensions. Deformed chil- 
dren should be gathered in day schools, under care of 
nurses, carried back and forth, when necessary, and well 
educated in special schools. 

Temporary diseases : These should be detected by the medi- 
cal inspectors and the family should care for the cases. 

21 



Chronic invalids should be educated in special day schools. 
The blind and deaf should be trained in special day 
schools, supported by the state, not the locality; danger 
of asylums. 

Nature of mental weakness: Dullness, in all of its stages, 
from backwardness to idiocy, is rather a slowing up of 
nervous process than a disease, like epilepsy or insanity. 
It may be caused by accident ; or it may be an after-effect 
of diseases like rickets, convulsions, or scarlet fever; 
doubtless syphilis in the parents is responsible in many 
cases. The feeble-minded can be improved, but not cured ; 
and idiocy and imbecility are inheritable. We have at 
least 200,000 feeble-minded children in the United States. 
Treatment of the feeble-minded: Doubtful cases should be 
tried out through special schools connected with the state 
schools. The milder cases can be improved by physiolog- 
ical education along the lines laid down by Edward Se- 
guin; nature of this training. Value of the Binet test. 
Remarkable work being done at Vineland, New Jersey. 
All the severer cases should be segregated and sometimes 
sterilized. Colonies should be formed and the defectives 
should end their lives and their generations in them. 

READING 

Feeble-Mindedness, Its Causes and Consequences, by Herbert H. 

Goddard, The Macmillan Co., New York, 1914. See also 

The Kallikak Family, by the same author and publisher, 

1912. 
The Relation of Physical Defect to School Progress, by Leonard 

P. Ayers, Russell Sage Foundation, New York, 1909. 
The Psychology of Mentally Deficient Children, by Naomi Nors- 

worthy, Science Press, New York, 1906. 
The Mental Health of the School Child, by J. E. Wallace Wallin, 

Yale University Press, New Haven, 1914. See Chap. XVIII. 



22 



VIII 

GROWTH OF LANGUAGE 

Value of language : Language is any means of communicat- 
ing thought or feeling, or of awakening it in others. Hu- 
man development is possible only through language. 
Without words to label sensations and objects, and others 
to gather these into groups, and still others to modify the 
groups and show their relations in terms of action, we 
should be simply crushed under a mass of sensations, and 
progress would never go far. 

Growth of language in infancy: Children, from the first, 
make gestures and inarticulate cries. These gurglings 
and cries prepare the vocal cords for their later work. 
The children recognize words before they can use them. 
Imitation of words ; order in which sounds develop. Or- 
der in which the parts of speech develop. Sapidity of 
growth in vocabulary. How content grows into words ; 
perfecting content through elimination, addition, substi- 
tution. 

Extent of vocabulary: Gale reports a boy who, in one day, 
when two years old, used 805 different words. Trettien 
records 1,068 different words used by a child two and one- 
half years old in one hour. Shakespeare is said to have 
used a vocabulary of about 24,000 words; the English 
Bible has only 7,209 different words. Children have a 
steadily increasing vocabulary, which probably amounts 
to from 10,000 to 15,000 words, when leaving school. 
Growth of concepts in school years: Our study on a list of 
words ; proportion of children at different ages having no 
content for a particular word, an entirely wrong content, 
a partially right content, a good working content. For 
words like emperor, monk, or armor, about one-third of 
the children in elementary schools have no content; or a 
wrong content; a little more than one-third have a par- 
tially right content; and less than one-third have a right 
content. Need for perfecting the content of type words 
in each year of school through appeals to experience, pic- 

23 



tures, and discussions. Value and limitations of work 
with the dictionary. 

Written language : Pictures are the first written language ; 
children early tend to develop symbols in their drawing; 
and they naturally pass through the picture-writing stage. 
Methods of teaching reading and writing; alphabetical 
method ; phonetic, or synthetic method ; word, sentence, or 
analytic method; an eclectic method agrees best with the 
normal development of a child's mind, for he grows by 
alternate synthesis and analysis. 

Problems in later language study: Expression should fol- 
low experience, not precede it. Content versus form; 
there is little use in getting the form ready for an unde- 
veloped content. Exactness versus fluency; these should 
have alternate emphasis. Grammatical and other rules 
should serve as correction in learning English; they are 
of slight value as guides, at least before the twelfth year. 
English spelling is an unfortunate but necessary evil; it 
tends to destroy intelligence and discourage reasoning; 
it should be mastered early. Penmanship is not language 
and it should be treated as manual training. 

READING 

The Physical and Mental Development of School Children, by 
Peter Sandiford, Longmans, Green, & Co., New York, 1913. 
See Chap. XIX, on The Development of Language in Chil- 
dren. 

Psychology of the Language Interest of Children, by A. W. Tret- 
tien, in Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. XI, p. 113. 

How Words Get Content, by Earl Barnes, in Barnes's Studies in 
Education, Vol. II, p. 43. 

Psychology of Childhood, by Frederick Tracy, D. C. Heath & 
Co., Boston, 1899. 



24 



IX 

MENTAL IMAGES AND IMAGINATION 

Steps in imagination: Ideas are first gained through sensa- 
tion and perception; they are then registered and asso- 
ciated in related groups. They may afterward be recalled 
as originally associated; this is memory. But they may 
also be reorganized in selected series that make poetry, 
romance, or falsehood ; or they may be jumbled in fancy ; 
or they may troop past in dreams. These latter forms of 
recall constitute imagination. 

Peculiarities of children's imagination: In childhood, the 
mind, like the body, is very active. The ideas are but 
slightly organized, and so they crowd before consciousness 
in all kinds of odd combinations. In this disorder, some 
ideas are put together in combinations that strike adults 
as brilliant imagination ; they are mainly accidents of dis- 
order. Creative imagination demands a well-ordered and 
active mind, stocked with vivid experience, and having a 
strong sense of universal truths. 

Imaginary companions : These may be created out of noth- 
ing or they may gather around tangible objects, such as 
a little shawl. These creations may change from day to 
day, or they may remain persistent for years. If accepted 
by the parents, they may raise difficult questions, for the 
child will treat them as real beings, and he may even 
charge his own offences to them. Children often shift 
their own personality for another, having a name and 
definite qualities, and they may live back and forth in 
these different characters. 

Playthings: These generally resemble the objects they rep- 
resent but, being smaller, the child can work his will upon 
them. Good playthings should be strong and well made, 
capable of varied relation to the child, and so simple that 
imagination can work about them. Expensive and highly 
specialized toys are bad for the child. 
Value of imagination: It enables us to escape from the 
limitations of the actual and to build for ourselves ideal 

25 



forms of experience. Through painting, poetry, drama, 
and romance we live as we like. If these creative arts are 
well selected they lift, not only their creator but all who 
share them, to a life of deepest significance. As hypothe- 
sis, imagination leads science in all of its forward move- 
ments. 

Dangers of imagination: If too much encouraged, it di- 
vorces the individual from the actual world in which, 
nevertheless, he must continue to live, and he becomes im- 
practical, inefficient, and discontented. It may make us 
blind to truth; and if it deals with base images it may 
corrupt and spoil the character. 

Educational value of imagination: The chaotic mass of 
images in a child's mind must be reduced to order. But 
this order must be not only the order of fact, but also 
the order of regulated imagination. Mere dreaming is 
not to be encouraged; but abundant exercise must be 
found for creative imagination. 

EEADING 

The Scientific Use of the Imagination, by John Tyndall, Long- 
mans, Green, & Co., 1870. 

The Invisible Playmate and W. V. Her Booh, by William Can- 
ton, Stone & Kimball, New York, 1897. 

Studies on Children's Stories and Poetry and Studies on Chil- 
dren's Drawings, by Earl Barnes, in Barnes's Studies in 
Education. 

Distribution and Functions of Mental Imagery, by George Her- 
bert Betts, Columbia University Contributions to Educa- 
tion, No. 26, Teachers' College, New York, 1909. 

Studies of Childhood, by James Sully, D. Appleton & Co., New 
York, 1896. See Chap. II, on The Age of Imagination. 



26 



X 

IMITATION AND SUGGESTION 

The psychology of imitation: All sensations, after register- 
ing themselves as memory images, tend to pass over into 
corresponding expressions. Memories are revived sensa- 
tions and hence they also tend to pass over into expres- 
sion. "Whatever one thinks that he tends to do ; muscle 
reading. Acts performed before me give me sensations, 
and words awaken memories of sensations that tend to 
pass into action. Consequently whatever I see done, or 
hear suggested, that I tend to do. 

Stages in development of imitation: The safety of animals 
depends on their imitating their parents. ' ' The imitative 
faculty makes men educable"; and "Example is the first 
great teacher." Children, like primitive men, dance with 
dancing leaves, shout with the storm, and sink under the 
depressing influence of fog. As we grow older, we select 
our admirations and inhibit our expressions. Contagion 
of mob mind, power of oratory, "suggestive" ideas. 
Conditions favoring imitation and suggestion: What we love 
that we follow ; passivity leaves us open to imitation, ad- 
vertising; repetition incites imitation. Opposing condi- 
tions : Dislike sometimes makes us do the opposite of 
what is suggested; alertness and individuality favor in- 
dividual action. 

Suggestion : Even when a person is awake, he may surren- 
der his personal control, under certain conditions, so that 
some one else can inject an idea into his mind which he 
may accept uncritically and carry into effect automatically. 
This process is called suggestion ; in its extreme form it is 
called hypnotism. 

Meaning and value of individuality: Strong individuals re- 
fuse to act in a particular manner, just because others do 
so. They appeal to their own liking, reason, or caprice. 
They refuse to follow conventions ; they wear clothes that 
are not fashionable ; paint pictures in new ways ; sing new 
songs ; fomi and state new theories. Individuality keeps 

27 



the world young, and initiates all advanced ideas. It is a 
priceless treasure, brought to earth with each new child, 
and it is generally lost. On the other hand, it is danger- 
ous, if abnormal or freakish, and it tends to destroy the 
accumulated habits which represent the treasure of the. 
ages. 

Educational value of imitation : It is very necessary in early 
years ; it makes good habits possible ; it relieves our higher 
faculties by relegating non-essentials to lower reflexes; 
it passes on our acquisitions to new generations. All edu- 
cational environment should be worthy of imitation, in- 
cluding the teacher. Genius should be conserved. 

READING 

The Laws of Imitation, by Gabriel Tarde, Henry Holt & Co., 

New York, 1903. 
The Subconscious Self, by Louis Waldstein, Charles Scribner's 

Sons, New York, 1897. 
Child Observations: Imitation and Allied Activities, D. C. Heath 

& Co., 1896. 
The Imitative Functions, by Josiah Royce, in Century Magazine, 

May, 1894. 
Mental and Physical Life in School Children, by Peter Sandi- 

ford, Longmans, Green, & Co., New York, 1913. See Chap. 

XII, on Suggestion and Imitation. 



28 



XI 

HABITS AND INSTINCTS 

How the lower nerve centers work: Nature of reflex action, 
its relation to the will. The action of the lower nerve cen- 
ters may be inherited, as in swallowing ; or it may be edu- 
cated along lines already made easy by racial practice, as 
in walking ; or it may be developed to meet new needs, as 
in typewriting. Nature of instinct: First an act is ac- 
cepted or chosen; then repeated until it becomes a habit 
in the individual ; then repeated in individuals until it be- 
comes an instinct of the species. How far is the original 
choice determined by conditions of environment? 
Part which imitation plays in training these centers: We 
may consciously reproduce an act which we are compelled 
to do, as in learning to write; or which seems desirable, 
as in learning to ride a bicycle ; or we may unconsciously 
imitate manners, inflections of the voice, tricks of behav- 
ior. Need of having good models before children. Strong 
personalities may lead weaker ones to imitate them until 
the result is a body of habits which is artificial, and un- 
fitted to its possessor. 

Effect of neglecting- these centers : If education of the lower 
nerve centers is neglected, and habits are not formed, ac- 
tion is unstable. Constant dependence on the higher nerve 
centers makes us smart and shallow. Reflexes give us 
economy of effort and leave the higher centers free for 
their legitimate work. 

Overemphasizing the lower centers: The individual becomes 
formal and dull; initiative is destroyed; originality is 
discouraged; and general progress stopped. Absolute 
monarchies, privileged classes, fixed theologies always fa- 
vor this education of memory, habit, and reflex action. 
Danger of mixing higher and lower control: Constant inter- 
ference with servants ; traveling with parcels ; walking in 
a strange city. If we switch off the reflex control, we 
frequently forget to switch it back again and then we dis- 
order the habit. Such action breaks up personality and 

29 



makes fussy people. Need for occasionally calling back 
reflexes to see that they are working well, breathing, 
walking, expenditure. 

Things not to be made habitual: Keligion, if it becomes 
automatic, is dead formalism. Literature requires a con- 
stant readjustment of the spirit. Friendship is worthless 
if automatic. Letter-writing, except for business, should 
always be in process of readjustment to new conditions 
and larger growth. 

Applications to education: Constant demand of the public 
that the schools shall return to the teaching of funda- 
mentals. We cannot return to fundamentals, for the past 
taught vastly more useless information than we do. Ur- 
gent need of going forward to fundamentals. All that 
we teach, including physical training, reading, spelling, 
writing, number, science, manners, morals, art, religion, 
should be carefully divided into two parts. That which 
is steadily used, and not subject to any considerable 
change, should be automatically learned and reduced to 
simple reflexes. What this would be in physical train- 
ing, arithmetic, geography, history. This should be mas- 
tered through drill; children's love for drill, if rightly 
handled; steps in good drill. The second part of the 
curriculum, subject to change and not constantly used, 
should be kept in the higher centers and not permitted 
to become reflex. 

READING 

The Subconscious Self and Its Relation to Education and Health, 

by Louis Waldstein, Charles Seribner's Sons, New York, 

1897. 
The Subconscious, by Joseph Jastrow, Houghton Mifflin Co., 

Boston, 1896. 
Habit and Instinct, by Lloyd C. Morgan, Arnold, New York, 

1896. 
Habit and Its Importance in Education, by Paul Radistock, D. 

C. Heath & Co., Boston, 1897. 
The Mental and Physical Life of School Children, by Peter San- 

diford, Longmans, Green, & Co., New York, 1913. See 

Chap. IX, on Habit and Related Topics. 
Human Behavior, by Stephen S. Colvin and William C. Bagley, 

The Maemillan Co., New York, 1913. See Chap. XL 

30 



XII 

MEMORY IN CHILDHOOD 

Nature of mental images: Every sensation registers itself 
in the nerve centers as an image; it also tends to relate 
itself to the images associated with it through connec- 
tions of time, jolace, etc. How far we remember every- 
thing we experience. Practically the mind is written over 
and over again with records. A child forgets nearly 
everything that happens before he is three years old. 
What this forgetting means. It is difficult to remember 
without association of images, and language labels are 
indispensable. 

Conditions that strengthen a memory image: Vividness of 
the sensation; this may be due to the sensation or to the 
condition of the mind; attention greatly increases the 
brilliancy. Association of the image with other images; 
if a person has a striking personality, is dressed in a 
striking manner, has a peculiar voice and an arresting 
name, we are more liable to remember him. The nature 
of the nervous system that receives the impression; this 
is far the most important element in memory and it can 
be changed but little by training. 

Development of memory: Few images become permanent 
before the age of six or seven. After this, the memory 
for both auditory and visual images increases until just 
before puberty, when there is a slowing up, and after 
that it increases to the age of sixteen or seventeen. There 
seems to be little relation between the development of 
memory and general intelligence. In his work on adoles- 
cence, G. Stanley Hall has summarized the many studies 
made on memory, with his usual thoroughness. 
Value of sense impressions for purposes of memory: Visual 
images are most easily recalled; but, for some people, 
auditory images have a special appeal. Smell gives us 
images difficult to recall, but strong in associations. 
Tastes are not easily recalled. Touch and general 
organic sensibility are the only sources of Helen Keller's 
memories. $] 



Remarkable memories: History is filled with instances of 
remarkable memories. Avicenna is said to have repeated 
the entire Koran by rote at ten years of age. Calculating 
prodigies depend largely on memory ; Jacques Inaudi per- 
formed mathematical calculations before the Sorbonne in 
Paris for an hour; he then repeated all the numbers he 
had been given, without an error. Waiters and porters 
often remember, years afterward, patrons whom they 
have seen but once. Statesmen, politicians, and detectives 
find the ability to remember faces and names of great 
value. 

Educating the memory: Probably the retentive power of 
the nervous system is not much increased by training. 
Images can be fixed more permanently by increasing the 
attention and by repetition, but inattentive drill is of 
slight value. Systems for strengthening the memory by 
artificial associations are of very slight value. 

READING 

Principles of Psychology, by William James, Henry Holt & Co., 

1890. 
Memory and Its Cultivation, by P. W. Edridge Green, D. Apple- 
ton & Co., 1897. 
The Diseases of Memory, by Theodore Ribot, D. Appleton & Co., 

New York, 1882. 
Adolescence: Its Psychology, by G. Stanley Hall, D. Appleton 

& Co., New York, 1904, Vol. II, p. 488. 
The Mental and Physical Life of School Children, by Peter San- 

diford, Longmans, Green, & Co., New York, 1913. See 

Chap. IX, on Memory. 
Special Study on the Historic Memory of Children, by Anna 

Kohler, in Studies in Historical Method, D. C. Heath & Co., 

Boston, 1896, p. 81. 



32 



XIII 

THE GROWTH OF PERSONALITY 

The riddle of personality: Universal feeling that we have 
a self, independent of body and mind. It is something 
which sits up aloft and guides our conduct. Science says 
that our physical and mental qualities are determined by 
our ancestors. The combination of paternal and maternal 
elements gives us a certain height, complexion, figure ; it 
determines our energy; it gives us a certain power of 
observation, memory, imagination. Is personality any- 
thing more than the sum of all these qualities? If there 
is also a spiritual ego, beyond this, whence does it come? 
Is it struck out at conception; or has it gone through 
previous incarnations? Bearing of these questions on 
education. 

Location of the ego: Earlier attempts to locate it in the 
pineal gland, the liver, the heart, and the brain. "With a 
baby, it seems to be in his mouth; that is the center of 
attraction and activity with him. After a while it radiates 
out over his body, into his hands, his feet, and his hair. 
Then it takes possession of certain things, his nursing 
bottle or crib, and of certain people, his mother, or nurse. 
Then it takes possession of his home and family, of his 
street, his school, his town, his church, his party, country, 
humanity. 

The hungers, or instincts, lead the spirit out: An idiot, with 
no driving instincts, never goes out. His personality re- 
mains confined to his body and largely to his mouth. 
Hunger for food leads the normal child out to varied 
experience; activity broadens his life through space; 
curiosity leads him, even where he can never go, through 
the power of ideas ; desire for property leads him to infuse 
himself into things until he owns them; social hungers 
lead him to infuse himself into people, singly and in 
groups ; beauty leads him out to art ; worship up to God. 
Restraining power of fear: Fear is the safety-brake on 
conduct. Without fear, the hungers of life would lead 

33 



children to destruction. Curiosity would lead them into 
fire, water, and over precipices. Fear of loss checks 
acquisitiveness ; fear of rebuff checks social ambition ; fear 
of ridicule checks egotism ; fear of public criticism checks 
artistic effort. We need to educate fear, not destroy it. 
Lines of growth : Human development moves steadily from 
the concrete to the abstract; from the near to the far. 
When Miss Young asked large groups of children what 
they would take if they could have any one choice granted, 
they advanced steadily with age from transient to more 
permanent things. Miss Cash found, in her study on 
children and caged birds, that the children advanced with 
age from cruelty to sympathy. All of our studies show 
a growth from selfishness to altruism, with a recrudes- 
cence of earlier forms at the age of eleven or twelve. 
Relation of child to parent: The parent must restrain the 
child and the child must gain power through struggling 
to escape. This struggle is most intense in infancy, at 
puberty, and in the later 'teens. The child who does not 
fully escape at maturity is unfortunate. Authority can 
only slowly be delegated to brothers and sisters. The 
school makes a good transition. 

READING 

The Development of Personality in Children, by Edward Howard 
Griggs, in Barnes's Studies in Education, Vol. I, p. 309. 
See, also, by the same author, Moral Education, B. "W. 
Huebsch, New York, 1904, Chap. Ill, on The Uniqueness of 
Each Personality. 

Studies in Childhood, by James Sully, D. Appleton & Co., New 
York, 1896, Chap. VII, on Primitive Egotism. 

Class Punishment, by Caroline Frear; Ought Children to be 
Paid for Domestic Service? by Blanche Dismorr; Children's 
Pets, by Miss K. G. Cash; Delegated Authority, by Sarah 
Young, all in Barnes's Studies in Education. 

The Diseases of Personality, by Thomas Ribot, The Open Court 
Publishing Co., Chicago, 1891. 



34 



XIV 

CHILDREN'S SENSE OF TIME 

How we sense time: Whether time is an objective reality 
or a subjective condition of thought, it remains true that 
we are conscious of it only through the series of pheno- 
mena that fills it. Unoccupied time cannot be experi- 
enced by us, for our physical life, of breathing and other 
bodily functions, always goes on while we live. 
Measures of time: Daylight and darkness are the most 
obvious measures of time, and they determine the day; 
the moon marks the month; and the seasons determine 
the year. Festivals are early devised to mark off the 
years; sacred days come in to divide time into weeks, or 
to mark the months. Divisions of the day, beyond day 
and night, are measured by the progress of the sun. Later, 
we divide time into units which are not marked by any 
constantly visible phenomenon, unless we provide some 
measuring instrument, like a clock 

How do young children approach time? Recurring hunger 
and sleep, and the periodicities of the body and of the 
family life all tend to break time into regular units in the 
child's mind. "Present and past," "now," "by and 
by," and "never" are understood as early as the child 
talks, while "yesterday," "to-day," and "to-morrow" 
quickly follow. Some vague content early gathers around 
"second," "minute," "hour," "day," and "year." For 
any considerable expression and understanding of time 
we must have numbers. 

Studies on children's sense of time : Their ability to measure 
seconds, minutes, hours, without seeing a clock. Differ- 
ence in results when the children are occupied, when they 
are unoccupied, when blindfolded. Attitude of 2,536 chil- 
dren toward punishment of a child for failing to go home 
at a certain assigned hour. Seventy-eight per cent, 
thought punishment just; only 13 per cent, realized that 
the offence was unconscious. 

Children's sense of historical time : The study by Mary Shel- 

35 



don Barnes shows, at all the school ages, a very slight 
but steady interest in knowing the time when historical 
events occur. In Miss Patterson's study on the meaning 
of a date, like 1895, she found the sense of historical time 
altogether lacking in children of seven and very slight 
up to twelve. 

Educational applications: It would be helpful to school 
children if they were given some drill in recognizing short 
periods of time. Dates, more than a lifetime removed 
from the present, are meaningless to children under the 
age of twelve. Special effort should be made to give the 
children a series of significant events that would establish 
a basis for chronology in their minds. 

READING 

The Historic Sense Among Primitive Peoples and The Develop- 
ment of the Historical Sense in Children, by Mary Sheldon 
Barnes; and Special Study on Children's Sense of Histori- 
cal Time, by Alma Patterson, all in Studies in Historical 
Method, by Mary Sheldon Barnes, D. C. Heath & Co., Bos- 
ton, 1896. The first two of these studies are reprinted in 
Barnes's Studies in Education, Vol. I, pp. 29, 43, 83. 

Punishment for Weak Time Sense, by David S. Snedden, in 
Barnes's Studies in Education, Vol. I, p. 344. 




XV 

THE SENSE OF LAW 

Origin of law: Law arises out of obedience to environment. 
In the animal world, it becomes habit, which is finally 
transmitted to offspring as instinct. A cat is born with 
a hundred laws written in its nervous system; it must 
walk stealthily, catch prey, etc. 

Among men: Men become self-conscious and obey not only 
instinct, but each other. The first laws are commands ; or 
decisions, following particular acts. There thus grows 
up a community law, generally resting in religious sanc- 
tions. Later, these decisions are formulated, and then 
written; and they become the sacred possessions of the 
tribe. 

Racial experiences repeated by children: Infants, like all 
young animals, obey their instincts. They suck, cry, and 
keep moving. Later they fight, and obey. 
Commands of elders: Until the age of puberty, individual 
commands largely take the place of formal regulations. 
Children expect to adjust their lives to other individuals 
and to the family group. Adult example is effective ; but 
children copy their elders less than is usually thought. 
The parent carries ten dollars in his pocket, goes out 
when he pleases, stays up until ten o'clock, and smokes, 
or drinks tea and coffee, if he wants to do so. The child 
recognizes that he cannot drink tea nor coffee, and he must 
go to bed when he is told to do so. It is the age of per- 
sonal allegiance, commands, and decisions. Little chil- 
dren do not expect even to be treated like older children ; 
they demand only fair play. This applies only to well- 
trained children. Spoiled children drink tea and coffee, 
smoke, and demand grown-up privileges at any age. 
Delegated authority: Children recognize delegated author- 
ity in the hands of adults of equal standing with the 
parents, aunts, grandmothers, or the like; but they gen- 
erally resent the rule of servants. It is with great diffi- 
culty that they submit to the rule of other children. Of 

37 





6 jHW P^ere askea whether a child, when told 

to^WralMpr his sister, should stop her scratching the 
taDle, only 20 per cent, would stop her by force, while 80 
per cent, would wait and report the matter to the mother. 
Children more easily accept the decision of a group of 
children and, at about the age of ten, they evolve gang 
rule. They readily accept the rule of teachers and the 
police. 

Slow recognition of general laws: The tests we have made 
show that when confronted with a problem where a law 
has been broken the children tend to substitute the indi- 
vidual decision, or some personal authority, for the law. 
Studies on a burglar and on school yard disobedience. 
Educational applications: Children should be related to 
some adult who can exercise authority wisely. General 
regulations and laws should be avoided. When authority 
is delegated, as to teachers, it should be consistently up- 
held by those who delegated it. At about the age of 
twelve, children should be increasingly brought into con- 
tact with laws, first as family and school regulations, and 
then as community laws. 

READING 

Children's Attitude Toward Law, by Estelle M. Darrah; The 
Development of Children's Ideas, by Earl Barnes; Dele- 
gated Authority, by Sarah Young; and Growth of Social 
Judgment, by Earl Barnes, all in Barnes's Studies in Edu- 
cation. 

Rudimentary Society Among Boys, by J. Hemsley Johnson, 
Printed by The Boys of McDonogh. School, McDonogh, Md., 
1893. 



38 



r 



XVI 

SUPERSTITIONS OF CHILDHOOD 

What superstition is: A superstition is a belief in an in- 
adequate cause. It is simply imperfect reasoning; and 
since men must reason they will constantly create super- 
stitions, when the causes are obscure or unknown. The 
Doctrine of Evolution is now science ; it may later become 
a superstition. To some people, the belief in vaccination 
is science ; to others it is superstition. 
Superstition in history: When men began to reason, they 
had little real knowledge and so they made up causes for 
every-day phenomena. Being themselves the most effi- 
cient causes they knew, they conceived manlike powers 
that produced the effects they could not otherwise explain. 
Primitive religions owe much to these superstitions; 
myths and mythology grow out of them. The first effects 
of these made-up causes is to encourage thinking; later, 
when they become fixed and generally accepted, they dis- 
courage reasoning. Accepted as authority, they fight new 
truth and retard development. Old ideas in theology, 
science, law, or society, always hate new ones. Supersti- 
tions of the ancient world, of the Greeks and Romans, of 
early Christianity, of the Middle Ages. Baneful effects 
of the superstition of witchcraft. 

Superstition in every-day life: Dr. Dresslar found that of 
7,176 superstitions reported by 875 people, 3,951 were 
disbelieved; 2,132 were partially believed; and 1,093 were 
believed ; 45 per cent, were wholly or partially believed and 
55 per cent, were rejected. In a study on Idaho teachers, 
I found 18 per cent., of the cases reported, wholly or par- 
tially believed and 82 per cent, disbelieved. Almost every 
one cherishes some superstitions, and does not like to 
break them ; in many parts of the country rank supersti- 
tions, like the belief in witches, still flourish. There is 
a wide border line between the known and the unknown, 
where it is uncertain whether the belief is science or super- 



39 



stition. We are especially prone to superstition in such 
matters as weather, health, and love affairs. 
Children develop and accept superstitions: When children 
begin to reason they create superstitions; not having 
learned to endure the agony of a suspended judgment, 
they demand causes everywhere and easily accept super- 
stitious explanations. Myths nourish; fairies, monsters, 
and Santa Claus have their period of absolute acceptance. 
In Miss Vostrovsky's study on pin luck, with 624 children, 
she found that at eight years of age 35 per cent, of the 
children accepted the belief and 20 per cent, rejected it. 
Disbelief grew steadily until, at the age of sixteen, it 
amounted to 80 per cent, of the children, while belief had 
nearly vanished at that age. 

Educational considerations : Young children need the harm- 
less superstitions of myths, fairies, and Santa Claus, as 
steps to understanding the larger forces of nature and 
of society. If they are not overemphasized, the children 
will make the transition from these superstitions to ration- 
alism as easily and naturally as they pass from creeping 
to walking. When experience and observation can be 
used to set aside a superstition, the transition will prove 
good training. But we all need to keep a sympathetic 
attitude toward primitive explanations of the unknown, 
both for the sake of poetry and as possible hypotheses. 

READING 

Myths and Myth-Makers, by John Fiske, J. R. Osgood & Co., 
Boston, 1873. 

Superstition and Education, by Fletcher B. Dresslar, The Uni- 
versity of California Publications, Vol. V, No. 1, The Uni- 
versity Press, Berkeley, 1907. 

A Study of Children's Superstitions, by Clara Vostrovsky, in 
Barnes's Studies in Education, Vol. I, p. 123 ; also Pin Luck 
by the same writer, in Education, March, 1898. 

The Child and Childhood, in Folk-Thought, by Alexander F„ 
Chamberlain, The Macmillan Co., New York, 1896. 



40 



XVII 

GROWTH OF REASONING PROCESSES 

Reasoning is involved in nearly all of our mental processes: 
Even in the act of perception we declare that a certain 
memory image equals a horse; then we declare that an- 
other new impression equals the memory image in ques- 
tion, and conclude that the new impression also represents 
a horse. This unconscious reasoning runs all through 
life ; but it is not important in organizing new knowledge 
until we reach some maturity. 

Period of collecting 1 : About the age of eight, children begin 
to make collections of objects on lines of common color, 
size, place, time, or circumstance. Mere collection culmi- 
nates at the age of ten. At eleven or twelve, interest in 
the things is stronger than in the series. After the age 
of twelve, interest passes on to the relations of the 
things, their classification and explanation. Thus at 
first a child may gather cigar bands; after ten, he be- 
comes interested in birds' eggs and nests; after twelve, 
he cares for souvenirs, or party programs. The collect- 
ing instinct makes a good beginning for many subjects of 
study. 

The age of acceptance: Young children rest in authority 
and readily believe almost anything they are told, if pre- 
sented seriously by those whom they trust. Their small 
experience and immature powers predispose them to 
myths, fairies, and the like. They seldom hunt for causes 
and their understanding of language is so weak that they 
accept almost any answers, if they do not understand 
the words. 

The reasoning hunger : By twelve, the children need general 
concepts and laws under which they can gather up their 
varied experience. They therefore seek for causes and 
they accept even superstition eagerly. They also seek 
to use general laws in interpreting their own daily lives. 
Centers about which reasoning gathers : In the early period, 
reasoning gathers around words and their content. Argu- 

41 



ments and debates turn on different understandings of 
words and phrases. In the scholastic period of the 
twelfth century we have a similar attitude of mind. What 
would happen if an irresistible force struck an immovable 
obstacle! Natural phenomena also awaken much reason- 
ing; why are some flowers yellow and others blue? The 
time for investigation comes later. Religious problems 
make active centers for reasoning, if it is allowed. If 
Judas was born to betray his Master why should he be 
blamed? Social adjustments give rise to, endless confu- 
sion. Why should a man who never works have luxuries, 
while a hard-working man lacks food for his family? The 
reasoning of this time is mainly deductive; induction 
comes later. 

Classical vs. scientific studies: This time of readjustment 
in belief needs wise handling. Children are the greatest 
radicals and at the same time the greatest conservatives 
on earth. Classical studies tend to discourage reasoning. 
Terminations are as they are because the best authorities 
use them. Scientific philological reasons do not appeal 
at this age, because of lack of knowledge on which to base 
them. Vested interests of all kinds have always favored 
classical studies. Natural sciences lead to heresy in re- 
ligion and politics. 

READING 

The Psychology of Reasoning, by Alfred Binet, The Open Court 
Publishing Co., Chicago, 1912. 

Studies of Childhood, by James Sully, D. Appleton & Co., New 
York, 1896. See Chap. Ill, on The Dawn of Reason. 

Children's Collections, by Earl Barnes, in Barnes's Studies in 
Education, Vol. I, p. 144. 

The Collecting Instinct, by Caroline Frear Burke, in Pedagogi- 
cal Seminary, July, 1900, Vol. 7, p. 179. 

Children's Ability to Reason, by John A. Hancock, in Educa- 
tional Review, Vol. XII, No. 3. 

Studies in Historical Method, by Mary Sheldon Barnes, D. C. 
Heath & Co., Boston, 1896. 

The Child as a Social Factor, by Earl Barnes, in Barnes's Stud- 
ies in Education, Vol. I, p. 355. 



42 



XVIII 

GROWTH OF SOCIAL UNDERSTANDING 

Nature of the social hunger : Alone we come into the world, 
and alone we leave it ; but in the passage across the stage 
we long for fellowship. Left to himself, any man would 
welcome companionship with an imbecile or a broken 
beggar. Ostracism paralyzes all the forces of life; out- 
lawry crushes the best in man. Solitary confinement is 
one of the most terrible punishments known ; sheep herd- 
ers often go mad. 

Social impulse among animals: Nearly all animals live with 
their kind, swarms of bees, flocks of birds, schools of fish. 
The forces that compel animals to live together are need 
for protection, wild geese and cattle ; getting food, wolves ; 
sex impulse, seals. It varies greatly in animals, from 
eagles to ants and bees. 

Beginnings of social activity in babyhood: From the first, 
the baby knows the difference between a lap and a crib. 
He early turns to other babies and to animals; when a 
year old he ignores his elders, but swarms outward to his 
peers. Social instinct differs greatly in children, some 
are naturally genial, companionable, and good mixers; 
others are shy, or indifferent. Excessive egotism of small 
children inhibits social action; need of kindergarten 
training. 

The gang period: This begins, with boys, about the age 
of ten. They are brought together through the driving 
need for fellowship that will make group activity possible 
at a later time. This activity includes group games and 
such tribal industries as hunting, fishing, building boats 
and rafts, going to ponds or into the woods, building 
huts. It also includes such predatory activities as 
plaguing people, fighting, destroying property, and steal- 
ing. Girls at the same age form sets; boys and girls 
instinctively work apart at this time. 
Blossoming of social forces at puberty: The larger self; 
growth of altruism. From twelve on, the organizations be- 

43 



come more formal and persistent. The schools have never 
used this force to advantage. High school fraternities 
and sororities; their evil tendency through massing of 
social groups, secret meetings, school politics; their sup- 
pression is best accomplished through using the social 
instinct otherwise. 

Education of social instincts: The organization of the 
school as a student body, with a special group to act as 
an executive committee; matters to come before such a 
body. Athletic societies should be subject to the whole 
student body; musical societies, debating clubs, camera 
clubs, etc. Dancing is valuable because subject to set 
rules; should be in daytime; women of the community 
to act as p-atronesses ; only group dancing allowed. Need 
for social training in a democracy. 

READING 

The Boy and his Gang, by J. Adams Puffer, Houghton Mifflin 

Co., Boston, 1912. 
The Institutional Activities of American Children, by Henry D. 

Sheldon, in the American Journal of Psychology, Vol. IX, 

p. 425 ; and Student Life and Customs, by the same writer, 

D. Appleton & Co., New York, 1901. 
How Children Judge Character and Children's Ideas of Lady 

and Gentleman, by Anna Kohler ; The Child a Social Factor 

and Growth of Social Judgment, by Earl Barnes; A Study 

in Children's Social Environment, by Sarah Young, all in 

Barnes's Studies in Education. 
Moral Education, by Edward Howard Griggs, B. "W. Huebsch, 

New York, 1904. See Chap. XII, on Moral Influence of the 

Social Atmosphere. 



44 



XIX 

LEADERSHIP 

Place of leadership in early society: In the past, leaders 
were supposed to originate ideas, initiate movements, 
gather a following, train it to their point of view, and 
then create new conditions and institutions. In the tradi- 
tions of primitive society it is a divinity, or a hero, who 
founds the city, establishes laws, settles government, wins 
a war, or invents writing, music, or dancing ; Romulus ; 
Moses; Lycurgus; Orpheus. Thomas Carlyle in his 
Heroes and Hero Worship has the same view. 
The modern view of leadership : The genetic view of society 
minimizes the value of individual leadership. We see 
that governments and religions grow ; and they cannot go 
far ahead of the development of the people. The recog- 
nition of at least some degree of economic determinism 
also limits both the group and its leaders. We have also 
learned how tradition gathers around personality, blend- 
ing under one name the virtues and acts of many people. 
And yet we recognize that individual variants may give 
us leaders of incalculable value for all the purposes of 
life. 

What makes leadership: The leader must have courage, 
even daring, a strong will, and self-esteem, for he must 
be able to stand alone. He must have vision and inven- 
tiveness, for he must lead the way. He must have a keen 
sense of values in others, that he may select able assist- 
ants. He leads through affirmation, repetition, and con- 
tagion. 

Loyalty among children: In their weakness and absence of 
a sense of law, and with their strong gregarious instinct, 
children naturally attach themselves strongly to persons. 
They love to lead and they love to follow. Leadership 
with them, as with savages, is largely a matter of strength. 
The boy who can lick the others, jump farther, or do more 
daring things, becomes captain. Intellectual supremacy 
counts for little. Discipline is maintained mainly by 

45 



force and fear, though if the leader has a sense of fair 
play it helps him in the long run. 

Leadership through prestige : About the age of twelve, vari- 
ous forms of what we may call made-up leadership be- 
come important. Social position begins to be recognized ; 
wealth and the possession of a fine home, servants, and 
carriages, may give a child an enviable position. A little 
later, the way one wears his clothes, his manners, intel- 
lectual ability, or marked self-control give him a position 
of prominence. 

Two kinds of leaders in America : The masses admire stren- 
uous characters who bluster, and who also deliver the 
goods; the political boss. The more intelligent class ad- 
mires and follows intelligent, self -controlled, and devoted 
men, like Goethals. A democracy must work to increase 
the second class. 

Training leaders: Teach ideals just ahead of the group; 
teach heroes daringly, "A diamond with a flaw is bet- 
ter than a perfect pebble." Recognize leadership in the 
home and in the school; give it its head; give it oppor- 
tunity for expression through varied organizations. Em- 
phasize general excellence; moral excellence may give us 
prigs; intellectual ability may make exploiters; physical 
strength may make brutes. Work for character; praise 
it; and give it room to act. 

READING 

The Crowd, by Gustave LeBon, The Macmillan Co., New York, 

1900. See Chap, on The Leaders of Crowds. 
Crowds, by Gerald Stanley Lee, Doubleday, Page & Co., 1913. 

See Book II on Crowds and Heroes. 
The Psychology of Prestige, by Louis Leopold, E. P. Dutton & 

Co., New York, 1914. 
The Boy and his Gang, by J. Adams Puffer, Houghton Mifflin 

Co., Boston, 1912. 
What Determines Leadership in Children's Plays, by Clara Vos- 

trosky, in Barnes's Studies in Education, Vol. I, p. 295. 
Rudimentary Society among Boys, by J. Hemsley Johnson, 

printed by The Boys of McDonogh School, McDonogh, Md., 

1893. 



46 



XX 

DEVELOPMENT OF THE MORAL NATURE 

The moral nature: It is composed of two factors, the hun- 
ger for righteousness which tells us we ought; and the 
moral judgment which tells us what we ought to do. 
Everywhere in history we find individuals and groups 
arrayed against each other, bent on mutual destruction, 
and often both sides are driven forward by a fierce hun- 
ger for righteousness. We used to call this driving power 
conscience, and we imagined that it not only commanded 
us to do right but that it also told us what was right. 
But like all the other primitive hungers, conscience is 
blind and must be directed by the judgment. 
Development of the sense of oughtness : Children know they 
ought to do right, and even before they have been taught, 
they understand in a vague way what it means to be good 
or bad. This is partly a sense of social approval or dis- 
approval, conveyed to them by tone, gesture, or action; 
but behind this lies an instinct of oughtness. This feeling 
grows until puberty, and blossoms at the age of fourteen. 
Development of moral judgments: The moral judgment is 
simply general judgment dealing with moral issues. With 
growth, its conclusions change and the right acts of one 
age may be wrong for the next. Since the judgments are 
changing, morals are relative ; and we must sometimes 
accept, or at least tolerate, in children, what we condemn 
in adults. 

Development of the moral nature in children: The fragmen- 
tariness of a child's life leads him to jump at conclusions 
and to be an extreme partisan. His egoism leads him to 
be selfish; and his lack of experience gives him weak 
sympathy and makes him cruel. His undeveloped time 
sense leads him to work for immediate ends, and hence 
deceit, comes easily. He is also very open to imitation and, 
if surrounded by bad influences, contagion does its work. 
He is helped toward the right by the general social ten- 
dency to exalt goodness ; by the general effort to protect 

47 



children from evil ; and by his own sense of oughtness and 
his love of approbation. 

Force of habit : Most of our conduct is habitual, rather than 
reasoned. Hence with children it is all important to form 
the habit of right doing. If a child is brought, up in an 
atmosphere of evil he will accept the mature judgments 
about him, and will form habits of wrong conduct with 
very great ease. These can easily be broken up in in- 
fancy; they are difficult in childhood, and still more so 
in youth. 

Moral awakening- just after puberty: With the reorganiza- 
tion of life, about the age of twelve, the child's character 
is largely formed. During the six years following, great 
care should be given to secure right conduct. Vigorous 
exercise, skilled work, organizations of youth, fine ideals, 
all will help at this age. 

READING 

Moral Education, by Edward Howard Griggs, B. W. Huebsch, 

New York, 1904. 
The Moral Instincts of Children, by Felix Adler, D. Appleton 

& Co., New York, 1892. 
Education, by Herbert Spencer, many editions. See Chap, on 

Moral Education. 
The Spirit of Youth and the City Street, by Jane Addams, The 

Macmillan Co., New York, 1909. 
Human Behavior, by Stephen S. Colvin and William C. Bagley, 

The Macmillan' Co., New York, 1913. 
The Development of Children's Political Ideas, Children's Ideas 

of War, and Studies in Ideals, by Earl Barnes; Children's 

Love of Truth, by Miss K. G. Cash, all in Barnes's Studies 

in Education. 



48 



XXI 

CRIMINAL TENDENCIES IN CHILDREN 

Is there a criminal type of child? Lombroso's theory. The 
older belief that all children were born in sin. The scien- 
tific belief that we are the heirs of all the ages, and espe- 
cially of onr direct ancestors. There seems to be no such 
thing as a moral imbecile ; though imbeciles are generally 
immoral, at least from the point of view of adult conduct. 
If we consider them as young children, the crime largely 
disappears. Children who are born in evil homes are 
generally surrounded by evil conditions in infancy. Prob- 
ably malicious destruction, lying, thieving, drunkenness, 
and sensuality are not inherited; relative strength of in- 
heritance and environment in producing crime. 
Most criminals begin as children: Criminal life is largely 
started in the years between twelve and eighteen. A 
great deal of it certainly springs from parental, neglect ; 
and much of this is connected with bad housing, poor food, 
lack of playgrounds, and other conditions that accompany 
poverty. Criminals come largely from the homes of the 
rich and the poor; the middle class, with good material 
conditions and regular habits of work and play, largely 
escapes. 

Conditions favorable to criminal life in children: Children 
struggle for self -direction, and they ought to do so; but 
they do not know enough to direct themselves and so, if 
they escape from the limiting conditions of home and 
school, they easily go wrong. They are stocked with 
energy and they long to be happy; if their natural ex- 
uberance of spirit is merely repressed it escapes in irregu- 
lar ways that lead to destruction. Having short vision, 
they cannot see the inevitable results of wrong-doing. 
Former treatment of juvenile delinquents: They were ar- 
rested, thrown into jail with adult criminals, and after 
some delay, during which they learned what their elders 
had to teach, they were tried under much the same routine 
as regular criminals, sent to prison with hardened adults, 

49 



and graduated as finished criminals. They went out 
shamed and ostrasized, and crime was their easiest way. 
Juvenile courts: In most states, children are now confined 
in houses of detention by themselves. Their cases are 
examined by sympathetic judges, who put aside the forms 
of the court and try to understand the individual circum- 
stances. Most of the first offenders are given good ad- 
vice and are liberated on parole. They are aided and 
watched over, and most of them are saved. If the cases 
are too difficult to be handled in the community life, they 
are sent to special schools, where they are trained in good 
habits, educated, at least in the rudiments of learning, and 
taught to work. Every emphasis is laid on building char- 
acter. 

George Junior Republics: These institutions represent 
many experiments which are being made with wayward 
children. Taken from their demoralized homes, generally 
in the city, they are surrounded in the countryside with 
simple conditions and are organized as self-directing 
colonies, aided by the suggestion and subject to the veto 
of an adult director. If they work, they earn money and 
can buy good food and shelter. If they are lazy they suf- 
fer. Social and moral realities are made so plain that 
the children can see them, and the effects are excellent. 

READING 

Mind in the Making, by Edward James Swift, Charles Scribner's 
Sons, New York, 1908. See Chap. II, on Criminal Tenden- 
cies in Boys. 

Adolescence: Its Psychology, by G. Stanley Hall, D. Appleton 
& Co., New York, 1904. See Chap. V, on Juvenile Faults, 
Immoralities, and Crimes. 

The Spirit of Youth and the City Street, by Jane Addams, The 
Macmillan Co., New York, 1909. 

A Bad Girl's Story, in Barnes's Studies in Education, Vol. I, 
p. 107. 



50 



XXII 

ATTITUDE OF CHILDREN TOWARD PUNISHMENT 

Primitive attitude toward punishment: In lower forms of 
life, the injured animal turns on his enemy and destroys 
him if he is able. In primitive society, all the emphasis 
is laid on reimbursing the one wronged. Revenge is the 
victim's privilege and his right. Such laws, judges, and 
executioners as exist are there to see that the one wronged 
receives the largest possible compensation. An eye for 
an eye; code of Hammurabi; early Hebrew laws; laws 
of the Twelve Tables. 

Attitude of the immediate past: Punishment existed as a 
deterrent to frighten the culprit and his kind so that the 
offense should not be repeated. The one wronged was 
largely ignored; and organized society looked only to its 
own preservation. Laws, judges, and prisons existed as 
scarecrows to frighten evil-doers, and the whole system 
rested on fear for its realization. 

Impending attitude: To-day we look upon most wrong- 
doing as due to disease or ignorance, and the aim of pun- 
ishment is to educate or cure the criminal. The one 
wronged is largely ignored and, so far as society seeks 
to protect itself, it does so by removing the cause of crime. 
In this stage, judges and executioners must be criminal 
experts; and education becomes the principal instrument 
of the law. The punishment may meantime be even more 
severe than before; maximum and minimum sentences; 
juvenile courts; paroles, reformatories. 
Studies on children: Children's ideas of punishment as 
seen in their compositions on just and unjust punish- 
ments; their judgments on hypothetical cases. The 
younger children resort at once to physical reactions ; but 
as they grow older there is a steadily increasing tendency 
to substitute more subjective penalties. In their earlier 
years, children consider the effects of actions ; only later, 
do they pay much attention to motives ; their whole atti- 
tude toward rewards and punishments is one of vague, 

51 



unreasoning feeling. Comparison of English and Amer- 
ican children. 

Spencer's natural consequences: The natural consequences 
of wrong-doing are the natural punishment ; but they often 
come too late to be corrective; and since they come late, 
their causal relation may not be seen. The parents, or 
society, must step in immediately after the offense and 
interpret its final consequences in some immediately dis- 
agreeable form of punishment. 

Educational applications: Infants understand and respond 
directly to force. A child under a year old cannot be 
reasoned with, but he must obey or die. Force is his lan- 
guage. As a young child, he naturally understands pun- 
ishment as retribution ; later, he understands it as correc- 
tion. If children are well cared for, a sharp word or a 
severe glance will save the situation at a critical time ; 
but if neglected, corporal punishment may be necessary. 
Just as severe medical treatment represents ignorance or 
neglect on the part of those responsible, so physical pun- 
ishment becomes necessary through the same causes. But 
as human beings we are ignorant, and sometimes neglect- 
ful, and then we must use proper remedies. 

EEADING 

Adolescence: Its Psychology, by G. Stanley Hall, D. Appleton & 
Co., New York, 1904. See Vol. I, pp. 346, 399, 402. 

Moral Education, by Edward Howard Griggs, B. W. Huebsch, 
New York, 1904. See Chapters XV and XVI on discipline. 

Type Studies on Discipline, by Earl Barnes; Class Punishment, 
by Caroline Frear; Children's Attitude towards Punish- 
ment for Weak Time-Sense, by David S. Snedden, all in 
Barnes's Studies in Education, Vol. I. 



52 



XXIII 

FRIZES AND REWARDS 

Nature of prizes and rewards : They are artificial stimuli, in 
the form of something desirable, given to human beings 
to make them put forth effort in directions where the 
natural results are not felt to be sufficient to induce the 
strongest possible effort. A prize is supposed to be of- 
fered in advance of the effort, while the reward follows; 
but, when the reward becomes established, it acts the same 
as a prize. These stimuli once played a very important 
part in education and society, but they are now unfash- 
ionable. 

Present forms: Candy, toys, holidays, and money are still 
offered in homes ; prize books, position in class, percental 
standings, honors, class offices, and magnum cum laude, 
in university degrees, still exist; stars, stripes, advance- 
ments in salary or position, rewards for return of prop- 
erty or for apprehending criminals, and pensions are 
found in public and private service; hero medals, and 
money from the Carnegie Hero Fund, are distributed in 
all parts of the world. War medals, orders, advancements, 
and votes of thanks are common in the army. Member- 
ship in institutes and academies, ribbons, orders, Nobel 
prizes, and other money prizes play an important part 
in the lives of artists and literary men. Knighthood and 
other titles of nobility are given in aristocracies. Pro- 
tective tariffs, subsidies, thanks of Congress, pensions, 
and medals are given by our own government. 
Psychology of rewards: Most of our efforts are put forth 
because of the benefit to be derived by ourselves or oth- 
ers in terms of pleasure or other well-being. A prize, or 
reward, is added to this natural benefit to increase the 
inducement. There is always the danger that the effort 
will be associated with the prize, and that the natural 
laws will be ignored. Thus the mind becomes confused; 
and when prizes fail effort stops. 

Attitude of young children: They live in such a fragmen- 

53 



tary and disordered world that they often cannot see nor 
realize the natural motives that should keep them going. 
Adventitious prizes or rewards give them a motive which 
they can see and feel, and they may greatly stimulate 
effort. Like all devices in learning, they are dangerous; 
but they may be effective when a temporary effort is 
needed. 

Use of prizes with the feeble-minded: In handling weak- 
minded children there may be no other way to reach them 
except through tangible rewards. At Vineland, New Jer- 
sey, the feeble-minded are promoted through steps in 
their daily work, or in their sleeping- or dining-room 
privileges. But the matter is so arranged that the child 
climbs up in opportunity to render service in the most 
disagreeable duties in the school. Thus the most ad- 
vanced dining-room is the least agreeable room used in 
the school; and the highest position attainable is that of 
chief of the milking squad, where a boy must get up at 
four o'clock in the morning. The child may see only the 
distinction, but behind that the opportunity to serve is 
the real thing, and the children will come to realize this 
as far as they are individually able. 

Use of prizes in more advanced society: Prizes are a species 
of gambling; and they disorganize private and public 
thinking. In literature and art, they tend to form acade- 
mies, institutes, and cliques, which encourage fixed ideas. 
Orders of nobility have the same effect on general so- 
ciety. Prizes and rewards shade off into real wages and 
the natural consequences of effort, such as are seen in 
promotions, and in profit-sharing. 

READING 

There is no good literature on this subject. 



54 



XXIV 

DEVELOPMENT OF THE JESTHETIC NATURE 

Universality of beauty: The hunger for beauty not only 
leads us to seek attractive forms, colors, movements, and 
sounds, but it also drives us to create forms of beauty in 
and around ourselves. There is a tendency to look upon 
beauty as belonging to art; and upon art as something 
apart from ordinary life. In reality, a woman is a mu- 
sician when she croons to her baby, a painter when she 
decorates her home, a sculptor when she chooses her cos- 
tume, a landscape architect when she plants her garden. 
Theories advanced to explain aesthetics: The arts grow 
through the expenditure of surplus energy. In lower ani- 
mals any excess of energy which they may accumulate 
tends to pass off in activity along lines established in the 
species through use ; kittens crouch and spring, dogs bark, 
colts trot. From needless crouching, jumping, running, 
develop the arts of dancing, marching, and the ballet; 
from barkings and chirpings come speech, song, and ora- 
tory; from scratchings and clippings comes design; from 
extra touches on a nest, a burrow, a cave, comes archi- 
tecture. 

Part played by sex attraction in this evolution: Under stress 
of passion, feathers brighten, fur takes a new gloss, horns 
glisten, wild creatures dance, song and new cries spring 
from the throat. Primitive man paints himself, puts feath- 
ers in his hair, and invents ornaments. He dances, struts, 
postures, shouts, and sings. War calls out similar ex- 
pressions. Mating and maternity call for shelter, and 
adorn it. 

Historic development: It seems to be true that the arts 
blossom in times of accumulated wealth, and peace, follow- 
ing times of struggle; they tend, when too highly devel- 
oped, to weaken political and military efficiency. Early 
Egyptian art; naturalness of the period of the early dy- 
nasties; conventional limitations of later times. Great 
power of ideas and beliefs in determining art forms. 

55 



Theological limitations of Hebrew art in painting, sculp- 
ture, and architecture; effect on literature. The hunger 
for beauty in Greece; remarkable products of fifth cen- 
tury, b.c. ; continuing influence of Greek ideals. Early Ro- 
man neglect and distrust of the arts; GraBCO-Roman art 
under the Empire; later excess and decadence. 
Christian suspicion of the arts : Rise of asceticism, devotion 
to the inartistic; almost a worship of deformed bodies, 
dirty rags, sores, ugly huts; reasons for this. Byzantine 
painting, severe, formal, unreal. Rebirth of respect for 
the beauty-hunger in the thirteenth century; reasons for 
this. 

Children's art interests: They are early attracted by 
brilliant light, color, strong or sharp sounds, rhythmic 
movement. Interest in form precedes love of color. In 
all art appreciation and creation children are excessive. 
They like drums, pounding on tin, dazzling colors, sharp 
rhythms, swings, hand-organs, merry-go-rounds. Order 
in which colors develop; neutral tints come late. Chil- 
dren's music, musical prodigies. 

READING 

The Fine Arts, by J. G. Baldwin, John Murray, London, 1891. 

Evolution in Art, by A. C. Haddon, Charles Scribner's Sons, 
New York, 1895. 

Education of An Artist, by C. Lewis Hind, Charles Scribner's 
Sons, New York, 1907. 

The Child's Attitude Toward Perspective Problems, by Arthur 
B. Clark; Studies on Children's Drawings, by Earl Barnes; 
Children's Drawings of Men and Women, by Lena Part- 
ridge; The Prettiest Thing, by Earl Barnes, all in Barnes's 
Studies in Education. 



56 



XXV 

RELIGIOUS DEVELOPMENT IN CHILDHOOD 

The nature of religion: A complete religion comprises three 
parts : a theology, which deals with the true ; a ritual, 
which expresses the beautiful; and a code of morals, 
which deals with the good. Some religions lack the moral 
code. 

Stages in a child's religious life : Before a child reaches the 
age of twelve, he is eagerly gathering impressions; he 
accepts these uncritically and rests in authority ; any state- 
ment of belief presented unquestioningly, by those whom 
the child trusts, is accepted at this time. The child shapes 
his conceptions on anthropomorphic forms ; God is a ven- 
erable man seated in the clouds, and heaven is a beautiful 
garden. 

From twelve to fourteen: At this time critical judgments 
awaken ; the child begins to reason and he seeks to place 
responsibility for dogmatic statements. At first, he says : 
"We read in the Bible"; "I have been told"; or, "They 
say." Later, he uses the subjunctive "if"; and, still 
later, he says : " I doubt, ' ' " I am not sure, ' ' and the like. 
In the transition to spiritual conceptions, at this time, 
the greatest difficulty comes with the idea of omnipres- 
ence; omnipotence and omniscience are comparatively 
easy. This is the time when children naturally accept 
dogmas, and are confirmed in all the churches. After 
fourteen, comes a larger spiritual life, which finds its ex- 
pression in aspiration, longing ; adoration ; the youth seeks 
service as an expression of his faith; knighthood flour- 
ishes; in modern life, the Epworth League, Y. M. C. A., 
and Y. W. C. A. organizations are powerful. 
Psychology of religious observance: It gives order and dig- 
nity to life. It stimulates emotional activity, fear, hope, 
sympathy, and aspiration. It may stimulate thought and 
it may prevent it. It gives social expression to life ; and 
generally encourages ideals of excellence. 
Dangers connected with excessive devotion to church work: 

57 



Its standards are apt to be low, since it accepts the will 
for the deed. Inefficiency sometimes flourishes in Sun- 
day Schools and in church committees. 
Educational considerations: This country claims to be 
Christian and it provides chaplains for Congress and for 
the army; but the rival sects have forced the state to 
secularize its schools; the new Pennsylvania law. Sun- 
day Schools reach only a part of the children of the coun- 
try. Meantime, the Jewish and Christian religions must 
still furnish the key to our modern art, literature, and 
general culture. 

READING 

The Varieties of Religious Experience, by William James, Long- 
mans, Green, & Co., New York, 1902. 

Children's Attitude Towards Theology, by Earl Barnes, in 
Barnes's Studies in Education, Vol. II, p. 283. 

Psychology of Religion, by Edwin D. Starbuck, Charles Scrib- 
ner's Sons, New York, 1899. 

A Psychological Study of Religion, by James H. Leuba, The 
Macmillan Co., New York, 1912. 

The Psychology of Religious Experience, by Edward S. Ames, 
Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, 1910. 

Education in Religion and Morals, by George Albert Coe, Flem- 
ing H. Revell Co., 1904. 

A Boy's Religion, by Rufus M. Jones, Ferris & Leach, Philadel- 
phia, 1902. 

Where Knowledge Fails, by Earl Barnes, B. W. Huebsch, New 
York, 1909. 



58 



XXVI 

PLAY IN CHILDHOOD 

Theories of play: It is the escape of surplus energy ex- 
pended through lines established in the species by the ac- 
tivity of ancestors ; it is a recapitulation of racial history ; 
it is an anticipation of future necessary activity; it is 
a means of developing bodily and subjective powers at 
each stage of growth; relative merit of these theories. 
Our changing attitude toward play: Formerly play was 
looked upon as mingled idleness and dissipation, danger- 
ous to children. We now realize that it is a necessary 
process in developing the body, the mind, the emotions, 
and social understanding. 

Changes in children's attitude toward play: Little children 
love fragmentary, spontaneous, and imitative plays, and 
they quickly tire of games. They play best in small 
groups, or alone. From the ages of six to ten they love 
playthings, short social games, and spontaneous play; 
from ten to fourteen, they love group games, where they 
are not too much bound by the rules, and where the in- 
dividual has wide range of liberty for individual expres- 
sion. After fourteen, they love games that require skill, 
and that subordinate the individual. 

Need of adult direction: Play requires an open space, fit- 
ted for the purpose, and some apparatus. Even with 
these conditions, most children show little invention in 
play and they need constant suggestions. Forward chil- 
dren need repression; and timid ones, encouragement. 
Difficulty in securing the best playing conditions without 
undue interference. 

Attempts to organize play in America: Our games suffer 
from our earlier theories of repression and from the 
tendency to professionalism. We are now recognizing 
that every school should have a playground; difficulty in 
directing play through a body of exclusively women teach- 
ers ; the Gary experiment. Public playgrounds in cities ; 
Chicago recreation centers; difficulty in securing good 

59 



leaders and supervisors of public playgrounds. The use 
of school premises for social purposes; difficulty of pro- 
viding indoor play for the winter months ; dancing. 
Play as recreation in later life : When the nervous system is 
overworked, the mind wearies, the will weakens, and the 
tendency is to stop. If, however, the worker sticks to his 
task, he passes the immediate tire and, as we say, he gets 
his second wind. The broken-down tissues have intoxi- 
cated him, and he may do better than before. The sec- 
ond tire comes more quickly than the first, and, if the 
worker persists, he may get his third wind, and even an 
added brilliancy of work. Such results are purchased at 
the price of all stimulants, subsequent exhaustion, and se- 
rious breakdown. If often repeated, the worker finds 
himself keyed up and caught in a nervous current from 
which he cannot escape. The only corrective for such a 
condition is recreation. 

Physical recreation is the best: Grown people should play 
games out of doors, tennis, ball, golf. The use of play in 
England; the effect of adult's participation in national 
plays. 

READING 

The Play of Man, by Karl Groos, D. Appleton & Co., New York, 

1901. 
Moral Education, by Edward Howard Griggs, B. W. Huebsch, 

New York, 1904. See Chap. IX on Moral Education 

Through Play. 
Experimental Pedagogy and The Psychology of the Child, by 

Ed. Claparede, Longmans, Green, & Co., New York, 1912. 
The People at Play, by R. L. Hartt, Houghton Mifflin Co., Bos- 
ton, 1909. 
A Comparative Study of the Play Activities of Adult Savages 

and, Civilized Children, by L. Estelle Appleton, University 

of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1910. 
Children's Plays, by Genevra Sisson, in Barnes's Studies in 

Education, Vol. I, p. 171. 



60 



XXVII 

CHILDREN'S ATTITUDE TOWARD WORK 

How children play their way into the harness of industry: 
It is largely imitation that determines the lines along 
which the surplus energy of childhood shall discharge 
itself. The ideal environment for a young child is a sim- 
ple, domestic setting, in the countryside, where primitive 
industries prevail. There he can play his way into the 
useful activities of life along the line over which the race 
has traveled. In a city environment, especially where 
there are servants, it is very difficult for a child to find his 
way into the world's work. 

School substitutes for home work: The kindergarten seeks 
to lead the child through typical industrial lines, but his 
sowing grain and mending shoes is only a shadow of the 
reality. It is good, but not the best. Montessori, in sim- 
plified buttonings and lacings, seeks to make this more real, 
but the types are very incomplete. In the early elemen- 
tary grades, manual training, school gardens and recrea- 
tion-grounds can do much. 

Work for definite products is only slightly educative for 
children: It quickly passes the educative stage and it de- 
mands qualities of persistence that do not belong to the 
age. Child labor destroys power of industrial adjust- 
ment. The play attitude should be largely maintained 
lintil the age of sixteen, at least. 

Children's attitude toward domestic work: Miss Dismorr's 
study shows that children only slowly recognize their debt 
to parents, for maintenance and education. It is well 
that this realization should come slowly; but it should be 
definitely trained. The feeling that work, as work, de- 
serves recompense comes early into consciousness, but in 
a vague way. 

Have children vocational aptitudes? Most children select 
their life work by accident, but they undoubtedly have 
strong leanings, in most cases, which can be determined, 
and which would greatly increase human efficiency and 

61 



happiness. Vocational bureaus and the careful attention 
of the teachers would save wide margins of life. 
Efforts to determine vocational fitness: Parsons and The 
Boston Vocation Bureau; based on an effort to help the 
child recognize his own qualities and then compare these 
qualities with those required in the callings to which he 
feels drawn. Munsterberg's more exact laboratory tests; 
efforts to apply them. Recent action of the Pennsylvania 
Railroad. 

Educational applications : An abundance of manual training 
should be given in all schools both for its general educa- 
tional value, and as preparation for work. Every oppor- 
tunity should be seized to acquaint the children with dif- 
ferent kinds of work, through trips to factories, and 
through noting work on the streets and in the homes. 
Biographies of worthy workers should be presented in 
attractive forms. After the age of fourteen, or sixteen, 
the child should be definitely fitted for his life work 
through special schools. 

READING 

Vocational Guidance: The Teacher as a Counselor, by J. Adams 
Puffer, Rand McNally & Co., New York, 1913. 

Choosing a Vocation, by Frank Parsons, Houghton Mifflin Co., 
Boston, 1909. 

Psychology and Industrial Efficiency, by Hugo Miinsterberg, 
Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, 1913. 

Vocational Guidance of Youth, by Meyer Bloomfield, Houghton 
Mifflin Co., Boston, 1911. 

Children's Ambitions, by Hattie M. Willard; Ought Children to 
be Paid for Domestic Services? by Blanche Dismorr; Chil- 
dren's Attitude Toward Future Occupation, by Earl Barnes; 
School Girl's Ideas of Women's Occupations, by Sarah 
Young, all in Barnes's Studies in Education. 



62 



XXVIII 

CHILDREN'S ATTITUDE TOWARD PROPERTY 

Property in the animal world: The desire to possess things 
runs through all living organisms. Even the lowest ani- 
mals eat more than they need, if they can find it, and lay 
on fat or protective covering. An animal with surplus 
fat is a capitalist and may retire from business, as it does 
when it hybernates. Higher animals accumulate nuts, 
bury bones, store up honey, hide acorns, or monopolize 
hunting grounds; the woods are full of savings banks. 
What property means: Property, in the psychological sense, 
is anything into which the individual has infused himself. 
This may not be the same as legal ownership, but it is the 
basal conception to which legal ownership must go back 
from time to time for correction. When a child gets pos- 
session of a toy he warms it with his own life. It be- 
comes a part of himself, like a new leg or an arm. In 
this sense, property is an expansion of the self; a new 
body for the soul to use. 

Stages in the development of a child's property sense: With 
infants the property sense is mere greediness; like ani- 
mals and savages, they possess everything, in a vague, 
unthinking way. During early childhood, to six years 
old, the advance is through desire, "I want it"; posses- 
sion, "I have it"; prior possession, "I got it first"; turn 
about, "My turn next." Meantime, individual owner- 
ship has crept up through comparatively valueless things, 
bits of stick and string, pieces of colored glass, cards, the 
waste basket of civilization. Property claims at this pe- 
riod rest largely on finding and gift; exchange or sale is 
difficult, as children cannot entirely withdraw themselves 
from their possessions, "Indian givers." Small sense of 
money; property morality; stealing. 

From six to twelve years old: The desire for personal own- 
ership is extreme. It develops along the lines of play- 
things, ornaments, small tools, clothes, and the like. It is 
difficult for children to own things in common, unless they 

63 



are large things, like playgrounds, buildings, or libraries, 
where ownership hardly appears. 

From twelve to eighteen years: Experience is more val- 
uable than things; it is not a saving time. Social inter- 
ests make common ownership increasingly possible ; base- 
ball outfits; society rooms, and furnishings. With ma- 
turity, especially with the coming of marriage and chil- 
dren, the individual seeks to accumulate; and he bends 
himself to the beliefs and practices of his times. 
Educational problems: Wliat part should the education of 
the property sense play in state schools! The older 
schools taught children to "respect property rights"; 
would it be a better protection for the future if they were 
taught the meaning of property rights'? Admitting that 
communal ownership of school supplies, books, paper, 
pencils, etc., is a social economic necessity, is it good edu- 
cation for young children 1 ? Ought children to have an al- 
lowance! Should they be paid for domestic service! 
Should they save money for the sake of accumulating! 
If so at what age ! Are school banks desirable ! At what 
age should children be given a sense of the economic value 
of their playthings, books, and clothes! 

READING 

Property, Its Origin and Development, by C. J. M. Letourneau, 

Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1892. 
The Theory of the Leisure Class, by Thorstein B. Veblen, The 

Maemillan Co., New York, 1905. 
Letters from a Self-Made Merchant to his Son, by G. H. Lorimer, 

Small, Maynard & Co. 
Children's Sense of Money, by Anna Kohler; Ought Children to 

be Paid for Dom.estic Services? by Blanche Dismorr; A 

Study in Children's Social Environment, by Sarah Young, 

all in Barnes's Studies in Education. 



64 



XXIX 

ATTITUDE OF CHILDREN TOWARD POLITICAL LIFE 

Educational value of political life: The final justification 
for a democracy lies in the fact that it educates all the 
people all the time. It is a constant laboratory course of 
study in sociology, economics, ethics, and philosophy. 
When all the people participate, mistakes are simply the 
price of learning; when a few govern, no one learns. Po- 
litical life broadens the mind and leads away from pro- 
vincial points of view; it makes for fair-mindedness, and 
leads one to respect opinions opposed to his own. It 
deepens the sense of political rights and, hence, of patriot- 
ism; it disarms violence by making people realize that 
they are to blame for their own troubles. 
American schools based on need for political training: Our 
state schools were founded to provide intelligent citi- 
zens for a democracy. The higher institutions were sup- 
posed to train ministers and statesmen. To-day, the aim 
of our schools is increasingly to prepare industrial lead- 
ers and workers. 

What good citizenship demands: General intelligence; fine 
ideals of public service; knowledge of the machinery of 
government ; acquaintance with political problems ; ability 
to pick out the right men for office ; watchfulness over pub- 
lic servants. New elements in the problem; social prob- 
lems are increasingly becoming political problems; girls 
must be trained as well as boys. 

Children's attitude toward political problems: Tibbey found 
that when children were asked what they would do if 
called to rule over a country that had no government, 
three-quarters of them concentrated their attention on 
keeping order; nearly a quarter of them would provide 
means of protection; and a small number would care for 
the poor, for education, and the like. Distinctively po- 
litical questions, dealing with the organization of the gov- 
ernment, laws, and courts, received very little attention 
before the ages of eleven and twelve. 

65 



Children's attitude toward leaders : In our studies on Queen 
Victoria, in England, and on President McKinley, in the 
United States, we found that the children admired these 
characters primarily because they were good and kind. 
They paid little attention to their intelligence, their devo- 
tion, or their morals, and until the age of ten they paid 
hardly any attention to their political qualities or powers. 
As Miss Jane Addams has pointed out, many of our 
voters are still on this plane, and so political bosses 
flourish. 

Education for citizenship: Children in state schools should 
be taught by voters; they should early pass judgment, 
under guidance, on different types of men and women; 
after the ages of ten or twelve they should be made ac- 
quainted with the political movements of the day, and 
should form the habit of reading and thinking about them ; 
before leaving school, they should be made acquainted 
with forms of government. 

READING 

The Development of Children's Political Ideas and Political 
Ideas of American Children, by Earl Barnes, in Barnes's 
Studies in Education, Vol. II, pp. 5, 25. 

Democracy and Social Ethics, by Jane Addams, The Macmillan 
Co., New York, 1902. See Chap. VII, on Political and So- 
cial Influences. 

The History and Pedagogy of American Student Societies, by 
Henry D. Sheldon, D. Appleton & Co., New York, 1901. 

Studies in Historical Method, by Mary Sheldon Barnes, D. C. 
Heath & Co., Boston, 1896. See Chapters on The Study of 
Local History, and The Making of Patriots. 

Human Nature in Politics, by Graham Wallas, Houghton Mifflin 
Co., Boston, 1909. 



66 



XXX 

CHILDREN'S SEX INTERESTS 

Significance of sex: The persistence of life in the world 
depends on the maintenance of sex interest, hence Nature 
has made it very powerful. Physically, it has developed 
a wide range of primary sex differences, those necessary 
for reproduction; and of secondary sex differences, those 
which serve as attractions, brilliant color, vocal calls, and 
the like. It has also developed subjective differences, 
though it is hard to tell which are primary and which are 
secondary in human beings. 

Sex and civilization: Sexual love furnishes the theme for 
much of literature, painting, sculpture, and music. It is 
the strongest present-day force in shaping human lives. 
It leads to the finest expressions of life in both men and 
women; it establishes the family; and it has lifted us to 
most of our advanced planes in human progress. But it 
also leads to lowest degradation of body and soul; and it 
continues the most terrible diseases known to man. 
Children's attitude toward sex before puberty: In human 
beings, the centers where end organs of nerves abound 
can be made to yield pleasure in various ways. Even in- 
fants turn early to these pleasures; handling themselves; 
the dry nipple; masturbation. Questions of origin arise 
sporadically in children's minds at all ages. From early 
childhood, boys and girls are easily attracted to morbid 
and obscene words, imagery, and stories. Under good 
conditions, boys and girls play freely together in infancy, 
but from the ages of seven to twelve they tend to 'play 
alone. With the physical changes that come at puberty 
there awakens a definite need for physiological informa- 
tion, especially for girls. 

After the age of twelve : Both boys and girls develop strong 
sex interest. They long for knowledge, and find special 
interest in being together. The tendency, however, un- 
der good conditions of living, is for modesty and shyness 
to keep ahead of sexual desire, and thus develop dreams 
and chivalry. 67 



Reasons for giving sex instruction: The object in giving sex 
instruction is to anticipate evil words, images, and acts; 
to give the necessary instruction that will lead to sexual 
and physical health; to prepare youth for intelligent pa- 
renthood; to secure a generation of strong children; to 
prevent and to eradicate sexual diseases. 
Dangers in sex instruction: Human beings are naturally 
reticent in matters of sex ; and in childhood and youth the 
natural interests do not gather around the processes of 
reproduction, but about the pleasures of sex. Hence we 
may load the mind with unnecessary biological knowledge ; 
we may awaken premature interest; and we may rob 
youth of its finer dreams of chivalry. All these dangers 
are increased if the information is given in school, through 
the fact that it is difficult to deal with groups or to isolate 
the individuals ; parents are ignorant and may resent the 
best of instruction; and the teachers are mainly celibate 
women. 

Experiments now being tried: Work of the Society of 
Sanitary and Moral Prophylaxis ; of the American Social 
Hygiene Association ; of the Bureau of Social Hygiene ; of 
the Y. M. C. A. Extension Lectures; of High School 
courses, in Chicago and elsewhere ; of books for children, 
parents, and teachers ; of home instruction. 

READING 

The Education of the Young in Sex Hygiene: A Text Book for 

Parents and Teachers, by Doctor Robert N. "Wilson, 1827 

Spruce Street, Philadelphia, 1913. 
Adolescence: Its Psychology, by G. Stanley Hall, D. Appleton & 

Q$, New York, 1904. 
For .Girls and the Mothers of Girls, by Mary G. Hood, The 

Bobbs Merrill Co., Indianapolis, 1914. 
Books and Pamphlets Intended to Give Sex Information, by Earl 

Barnes, in Studies in Education, Vol. I, p. 301. 
An Introduction to the Study of Adolescent Education, by Cyril 

Bruyn Andrews, Rebman Limited, London, 1912. 
Report of the Special Committee on the Hatter and Methods of 

Sex Education, issued bv The American Federation for Sex 

Hygiene, 105 AVest 40th' Street, New York, 1912. 
Psychology of Adolescence, by Marion Craig Potter, Rochester, 

New York, 1913. 

68 



